Course Introduction

MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SEROLOGY BLOOD

This module provides you an introduction to forensic serology blood, covering its historical context and key characteristics. It explores the constituents of blood, such as plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, and their roles in the circulatory system. The concept of the functioning of blood in the body, the procedures for collecting, preserving, and packaging blood for forensic investigations, and the evidential significance of blood in forensic contexts will also be taught.

MODULE 2 – BLOOD STAIN PATTERNS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

This module focuses on bloodstain patterns and their classification. It covers various types of bloodstains, categorizing them into dry and wet types, and explains the classification of bloodstain patterns: passive patterns (caused by gravity), spattered patterns (resulting from external forces), and altered patterns (modified after formation). The module also explores blood pattern interpretation, photography, and the collection, preservation, and packaging of liquid, wet, and dry bloodstains. Additionally, it addresses the forensic and legal significance of these patterns in crime scene reconstruction.

MODULE 3 – IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF BLOOD AND BLOODSTAINS

This module covers methods for identifying and examining blood and bloodstains, including:

Physical examination methods: Visual and UV/IR examination

Presumptive tests: benzidine test, phenolphthalein test (Kastle Mayer test), tetramethylbenzidine test (TMB), luminol test, leuco malachite green test (LMG), ortho-toluidine test, fluorescein test, and hemastix test

Confirmatory or microcrystal tests: Hematin (Teichmann test), acetone-color hemin (Wagenaar test), and hemocromogen (Takayama test)

You will also learn about chromatographic, spectrophotometric, and electrophoresis methods along with cellulose acetate electrophoresis, immunoelectrophoresis, and immunological (anti-hemoglobin) tests, and the Hexagon OBTI Test.

MODULE 4 – DETERMINATION OF SPECIES OF ORIGIN

This module explores methods to identify species origin in biological samples using techniques like ring test, single diffusion in one and two dimensions, immunoelectrophoresis, rocket immunoelectrophoresis (Laurell Technique), two-dimensional and crossed-over electrophoresis, antihuman globulin serum inhibition, passive hemagglutination, precipitin-inhibition, mixed antiglobulin, sensitized latex particle, and rapid immunoassay.

You will also learn about the preparation of extracts and lectins, factors affecting precipitin tests, like precipitating antibody, balanced antibody-antigen concentration, diffusion coefficient, optimal environment, and antiserum specificity. The concept to determine human and animal origin from various biological samples, including bones, flesh, nails, skin, teeth, fluids and stains, menstrual blood, semen, saliva, sweat, tears, pus, vomit, etc., is also covered.

MODULE 5 – SEROGENETIC MARKER

This module gives you an understanding of blood grouping, biochemistry, and genetics underlying blood grouping systems (ABO, Rh, MN, and others), methods of ABO blood grouping (dry and wet), and blood group-specific ABH substances (secretor/non-secretor status and Lewis antigen). You will also learn about polymorphic enzyme typing, including phosphoglucomutase (PGM), glyoxalase (GLO-I), esterase D (ESD), adenylate kinase (AK), adenosine deaminase (ADA), erythrocyte acid phosphatase (ESD), and phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD). Additionally, topics like electrophoresis of serum proteins, human leukocyte antigen typing, use of serogenetic markers in individualization, paternity disputes, pitfalls in red cell typing, and new advancements in blood stain grouping are also covered.

MODULE 6 – TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINATION OF BLOOD GROUP

This module covers advanced blood grouping techniques such as the crust method, absorption inhibition, mixed agglutination, and absorption elution (test-tube, thread, and ammonia extraction) methods. You will also learn about how to determine A and AB sub-groups, along with the Mn and Rh systems. The module provides essential knowledge for precise blood group identification, enhancing forensic investigations involving blood-related evidence.

MODULE 7 – SEMEN

This module covers the process of semen examination in forensic investigations, including its historical context, characteristics, and evidential significance. Topics include physical examination (visual and UV/IR), presumptive tests (acid phosphatase, creatine phosphokinase, spermin crystal, and choline crystal), and microscopic examination for spermatozoa (LDH and AP iso-enzymes). You will also learn about advanced techniques like crossover electrophoresis along with the collection and examination of other biological fluids such as saliva, vaginal fluid, tears, vomit, urine, feces, and menstrual blood, and their forensic implications.

MODULE 8 – CONCEPT AND FUNDAMENTALS OF DNA

This module covers the fundamentals of DNA, including its structure, packaging, and types of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). You will learn about DNA's role in carrying genetic or hereditary information and RNA’s role in protein synthesis. Types and structure of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and key experiments, such as bacterial transformation, the Hershey-Chase experiment, and the Meselson-Stahl experiment, are explored to confirm DNA and RNA as genetic materials. The module also focuses on the use of DNA in criminal investigations as an evidentiary tool.

MODULE 9 – HUMAN GENETICS

In this module, you will learn about the history and evolution of human genetics, exploring gene structures, types, and functions, including pseudogenes, non-coding genes, overlapping genes, and multigene families. The module also covers Mendelian inheritance, multiple alleles, genetic mutations, and heredity along with their causes, types, and detection methods. You will also study the human genome's diversity, gene mapping, population genetics, and the Human Genome Project, gaining insights into genetic variation and advanced detection methods.

MODULE 10 – EXTRACTION AND EVOLUTION OF DNA

This module covers the role of DNA in forensic investigations, sources of DNA like blood, semen, saliva, bones and teeth, hair, body tissues, nails, and vaginal secretions, and DNA extraction methods including organic (phenol-chloroform), non-organic (proteinase K and salting out), Chelex (ion exchange resin), FTA paper, silica-based (silica exchange resin-Qiagen), and Qia Amp.

You will also learn about the role of restriction enzymes in DNA analysis and qualitative and quantitative analysis methods, such as the slot-blot method, yield-gel analysis, and UV/visible spectrophotometry. It also covers gel electrophoresis, Southern blotting, PCR for DNA quality enhancement, and crucial precautions to ensure accuracy and reliability in these techniques.

MODULE 11 – DNA FINGERPRINTING

This module focuses on DNA fingerprinting, its historical overview, types of polymorphism (sequence polymorphism and length polymorphism), and detection techniques (HLA typing, RFLP analysis, PCR amplification, gender identification, AMP FLP, RAPD, Y-STR, and mitochondrial DNA analysis). The module concludes with advanced DNA fingerprinting techniques, emphasizing result evaluation, contamination prevention, and the significance of DNA fingerprinting in legal contexts.

MODULE 12 – IMPORTANCE AND LEGAL PERSPECTIVES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING

This module explores legal perspectives and applications of DNA fingerprinting in forensic contexts, including paternity disputes, child swapping incidents, veterinary sciences, missing persons, civil immigration, and wildlife and agricultural cases. It also addresses ethical concerns, procedural considerations, and the admissibility of DNA profiling as evidence while discussing the limitations of DNA fingerprinting methods and advancements in the field.